3D nepali photos

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हतियार बिक्रीबारे छानबिन हुने

काठमाडौ, श्रावण २४ -
नेपाली सेनाको संरक्षणमा रहेका ऐतिहासिक र पुरातात्त्विक महत्त्वका पुराना हतियार सस्तो मूल्यमा बिक्री गरिएको सम्बन्धमा संसद्को राज्य व्यवस्था समितिले छानबिन गर्ने भएको छ ।

माओवादी द्वन्द्व चर्केका बेला ११ वर्षअघि सरकारले अत्याधुनिक हतियार खरिद गर्ने नाममा अमेरिकाको न्युजर्सीस्थित 'इन्टरनेसनल मिलिटरी एन्टिक्स' नामक कम्पनीलाई पुरातात्त्विक महत्त्वको ४ सय ५० टन हतियार बेचेको थियो । यससम्बन्धी समाचार कान्तिपुर टीभी र कान्तिपुर दैनिकबाट सार्वजनिक भएपछि समितिले रक्षामन्त्री विष्णु पौडेल, रक्षासचिव नवीन घिमिरे र प्रधानसेनापति छत्रमानसिंह गुरुङलाई शुक्रबार जानकारी दिन बोलाएको छ ।

'पुरातात्त्विक र ऐतिहासिक महत्त्वका हतियार बेचिएको सम्बन्धमा सञ्चार माध्यममा समाचार प्रकाशित/प्रसारित भएको छ । मुलुकको इतिहास चिनाउने हतियार किन, कसरी, केका लागि बेचिएको हो भन्नेबारे सरोकारवालाबाट जानकारी लिन बैठक बोलाइएको छ,' समिति सभापति रामनाथ ढकालले भने, 'प्रारम्भिक जानकारी लिएपछि आवश्यकताअनुसार यससम्बन्धमा छानबिनलगायत आवश्यक कदम लिइनेछ ।'

हतियार खरिदकर्ता कम्पनीले आफ्नो वेबसाइट -आईएमएड्यास यूएसए डटकम) मार्फत ती हतियार खुला बिक्रीमा राखेको छ । वेबसाइटमा राखिएको विवरण अनुसार ९७ प्रतिशतभन्दा बढी हतियार सन् १८९८ भन्दाअघि बनेका हुन् । सरकारले नेपालका प्रथम वैज्ञानिक गेहेन्द्रशमशेरले बनाएका हतियारसमेत सो कम्पनीलाई बेचेको हो ।

रक्षा मन्त्रालय र सेना दुवैले यस सम्बन्धमा कुनै जानकारी नभएको प्रतिक्रिया दिएका हुन् । 'सञ्चार माध्यममा कुराहरू आएको छ, राज्यव्यवस्था समितिले पनि जानकारी मागेको छ । तर निकै पुरानो विषय भएकाले अहिले नै के भएको हो भन्नेबारे हामीलाई जानकारी छैन । हामी पनि खोजबिन गर्दैछौं,' रक्षा प्रवक्ता सहसचिव द्वारिकाप्रसाद आचार्यले भने । सैनिक प्रवक्ता सहायकरथी रमीन्द्र छेत्रीले पनि तत्कालीन सरकारले निर्णय गरेकाले यसबारे जानकारी नभएको प्रतिक्रिया दिए ।

दरबारका पूर्वसैनिक सचिव रथी विवेक शाहले भने यस सम्बन्धमा दरबार, सरकार, रक्षा मन्त्रालय र सेना सबैलाई थाहा भएको बताए । 'सेनाकै प्रस्तावमा रक्षाले मन्त्रिपरिषद्बाट निर्णय गराएको हो । दरबारको पनि पुराना हतियार बिक्री र नयाँ हतियार खरिदसम्बन्धी विषयको जानकारी र चासो दुवै थियो,' उनले भने । पूर्वरथी शाहका अनुसार ती हतियार राम्ररी संरक्षण गरेर राख्न सक्ने अवस्था पनि नभएको र सडेर, गलेर जान थालेकाले बिक्री गरिएको उनले जनाए । नयाँ हतियार खरिदका लागि सरकारले पैसा नदिएकाले ती हतियार बिक्री गर्नुपरेको उनले जनाए ।

'सरकारले पैसा दिन सकेको थिएन, माओवादीसँग युद्ध लडेको अवस्था थियो । त्यसैलै ती पुराना हतियारका साथै प्रहरीलाई पुराना थ्रीनट थ्री र सशस्त्रलाई पुराना एसएलआर बेचेर नयाँ हतियार किनिएको हो,' पूर्वरथी शाहले भने, 'यसलाई देशको इतिहास बेचेको रूपमा लिनु वा प्रहरीको सुडान घोटालाजस्तो मान्नु उचित होइन ।' हतियार क्रेता कम्पनीलाई सेनाको हतियार भण्डारण क्षेत्रको तस्बिर, श्रव्यदृश्य खिच्न दिनु र कम्पनीले त्यसलाई विज्ञापनका रूपमा प्रयोग गरी आफ्नो वेबसाइटमा राख्नु भने गलत भएको उनले जनाए ।

नेपाली सेनाका पूर्वयुद्धकार्य तथा व्यवस्था निर्देशक -डीएमओ) प्रदीपप्रताप बम मल्लले माओवादीविरुद्ध सेना परिचालन गर्ने तयारी भइरहेकाले तत्कालीन प्रधानमन्त्री गिरिजाप्रसाद कोइरालाकै पालामा हतियार बिक्री प्रक्रिया सुरु गरिएको जानकारी दिए । त्यसबेला प्रधानसेनापति प्रज्वलशमशेर जबरा थिए । आफू डीएमओमा आउनुअघि नै निर्णय भइसकेको र भारतले केही समय रोकिदिएकाले मात्रै पछि प्यारजंग थापा प्रधानसेनापति हुँदा ढुवानी भएको उनले जनाए ।

'पुराना हतियार, उपकरण बेच्ने निर्णय प्रधानसेनापति र पीएसओज -पि्रन्सिपल स्टाफ अफिसर्स) ले गर्छ । त्यसपछि सम्भाररथी विभागले टेन्डर खोल्ने, बेच्नेलगायतका काम गर्छ,' उनले भने । हतियार बिक्रीका बेला तत्कालीन उपरथी कुमार फुदुङ सम्भाररथी विभागका प्रमुख थिए । हतियार खरिद गर्ने कम्पनीका मालिक अमेरिकी नागरिक क्रिस्चियन क्रान्मरले हतियार खरिदका क्रममा तत्कालीन उपरथी फुदुङका तर्फबाट सक्रिय भूमिका खेलेका ठमेलका व्यवसायी नरेश दासप्रति आधार व्यक्त गरेका हुन् ।

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जिएसएम मोबाइलका ग्राहक ९५ प्रतिशतले बढे

काठमाडौ, श्रावण २४ -
जिएसएम मोबाइल सेवा प्रदायकबीच बढेको प्रतिस्पर्धा र आक्रामक बजार रणनीतिका कारण बजारको आकार एक वर्षमै ९५ प्रतिशतले बढेको छ । आर्थिक वर्ष २०६७/०६८ मा जिएसएम मोबाइल प्रयोकर्ताको संख्या अघिल्लाको तुलनामा ९५ प्रतिशतले बढेको हो । यो वृद्धिसँगै मोबाइल प्रयोगकर्ताको संख्या १ करोड ७ लाख पुगेको छ ।

नेपाल टेलिकम र एनसेलले यस अवधिमा ३९ लाख ग्राहक थपेका छन् । आर्थिक वर्ष ०६६/०६७ मा भने २० लाख मात्र ग्राहक थपिएका थिए । गत आर्थिक वर्ष निजी क्षेत्रको कम्पनी एनसेलले सबैभन्दा धेरै २७ लाख ग्राहक थपेको छ । सरकारी स्वामित्वको नेपाल टेलिकममा १२ लाख ग्राहक थपिएका छन् । दूरसञ्चार प्राधिरकणका अनुसार घट्दो महसुल, प्रतिस्पर्धा र मोबाइलको बढ्दो आवश्यकताका कारण संख्यामा उच्च वृद्धि देखिएको हो ।

'दुई वर्षमा सेवा प्रदायक कम्पनीबीच बढेको प्रतिस्पर्धाले ग्राहकको संख्यामा उच्च वृद्धि आएको हो,' प्राधिकरण स्रोतले भन्यो, 'तर गुणस्तरको अवस्था भने हुनुपर्ने भन्दा धेरै कम छ ।'

कम्पनीहरूले उपलब्ध गराउँदै आएको मोबाइल सेवाको गुणस्तर जाँच्नका लागि प्राधिकरणले काठमाडौं, पोखरा, विराटनगर र नेपालगन्जमा सर्वेक्षण गरिरहेको छ ।

प्राधिकरणले चालू आर्थिक वर्षभित्र ग्रामीण र सहरी क्षेत्रमा साधारण फोन र मोबाइल सेवाको सर्वेक्षणका लागि २० लाख रुपैयाँको हाराहारी रकम छुट्याएको छ ।

सञ्चार क्षेत्रमा सबैभन्दा ठूलो स्थान जिएसएम मोबाइलको रहेको छ । तथ्यांकअनुसार यसको सञ्चार क्षेत्रमा ८० प्रतिशतभन्दा बढी हिस्सा छ । जिएसएम सेवा विस्तारसँगै कुल जनसंख्याको ४० प्रतिशतसँग सञ्चार सेवा पुगेको छ ।

एनसेलले सबैभन्दा धेरै ३ लाख ग्राहक माघमा थपेको छ । यही समयमा एनसेलले जिएसएम प्रयोगकर्ताको संख्यामा नेपाल टेलिकमलाई उछिनेको थियो । 'विभिन्न योजना र नेटवर्कको गुणस्तरका कारण एनसेलप्रतिको आकर्षण बढेको छ,' एनसेलकी कर्पोरेट कम्युनिकेसन म्यानेजर सञ्जु कोइरालाले भनिन् । '२०११ को अन्त्यसम्ममा मुलुकको ९० प्रतिशत जनसंख्यालाई समेट्ने गरी सबै जिल्लाभित्र हाम्रो नेटवर्क पुग्ने छ,' उनले भनिन् ।

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घूस बन्दपछि ट्रायलमा ८५ प्रतिशत फेल

वीरगन्ज, श्रावण २४ -
परीक्षामा कडाइ गरेपछि यहाँस्थित नारायणी अञ्चल यातायात व्यवस्था कार्यालयबाट सवारी चालक अनुमतिपत्र -लाइसेन्स) लिनेको संख्या ८५ प्रतिशत घटेको छ । लाइसेन्स वितरणमा आर्थिक चलखेल हुने गरेको चौतर्फी गुनासोसँगै प्रहरी प्रमुख रमेश खरेलले परीक्षा प्रणाली पारदर्शी बनाएपछि लाइसेन्स लिनेको संख्या ह्वात्तै घटेको हो ।

नेपाल प्रहरीका प्रहरी सहायक निरीक्षक -असई) र नेपाली सेनाका लेफटनेन्टसमेत ट्रायलमा अनुत्तीर्ण भएका छन् । यहाँस्थित अञ्चल यातायात कार्यालयमा साउन महिनाका लागि लाइसेन्स लिन ८ सय ५१ जनाले आवेदन दिएका थिए । यसमध्ये १ सय २२ जना मात्र उत्तीर्ण भएका छन् । प्रत्येक महिना कम्तीमा २ हजारले आवेदन गर्ने कार्यालयमा खरेलकै कारण आवेदकको संख्या घटेको थियो । लिखित र ट्रायल परीक्षामा जिल्ला प्रहरी कार्यालयका प्रतिनिधि प्रहरी निरीक्षकले कडाइ गरेका थिए । विगतमा आवेदन दिने सबैजसोले लाइसेन्स पाएको कार्यालयको तथ्यांकले देखाउँछ ।

परीक्ष्ाामा कडाइ गरी दक्ष चालकले मात्र लाइसेन्स पाउने अवस्था सिर्जना गर्न जिल्ला प्रहरीका प्रतिनिधिलाई निर्देशन दिएको एसपी खरेलले बताए । 'पैसाको भरमा जोसुकैलाई लाइसेन्स दिने परम्पराले सडक दुर्घटना बढाएको छ,' उनले थपे, 'मैले यातायातका हाकिमलाई निर्देशन दिन नमिले पनि आफ्ना प्रतिनिधिमार्फत अनियमिता रोक्ने प्रयास गरेको हुँ ।' कडाइले निरन्तरता पाउने जनाउँदै उनले घूस खुवाएर लाइसेन्स लिनेका लागि वीरगन्जमा ढोका बन्द भएको बताए ।

यातायात कार्यालयमा अनियमितताले सीमा नाघेका कारण परीक्षामा अनुपस्थित भए पनि घरमै बसीबसी लाइसेन्स पाउने अवस्था थियो । कार्यालयको तथ्यांकअनुसार गत वैशाखमा २ हजार ६ सय ९९ र जेठमा ३ हजार ३१ जनाले आवेदन दिएका थिए । परीक्षामा उपस्थित भएका सबै उत्तीर्ण हुने गरेको कार्यालयसम्बद्ध स्रोतले जनायो । कार्यालयका अनुसार राजनीतिक दल र विद्यार्थी संगठनका नेता, सभासद, सञ्चारकर्मीलगायतको सिफारिस आउने गरेको थियो । 'भूमिगत सशस्त्र समूहका कार्यकर्ताले समेत फोन गरी सिफारिस गर्थे,' एक अधिकृतले भने ।

कडाइ गरेका कारण निष्पक्ष भएर काम गर्न पाएको शाखा अधिकृत दुर्गा नेपालले बताए । उनका अनुसार आवेदन बढी परेका कारण बिहान ७ बजेदेखि राति ११ बजेसम्म काम गर्नुपरेको थियो । ०६७ जेठमा ६ हजार १ सय ४३ जनाले लाइसेन्स लिएका थिए । लाइसेन्स वितरणको समयमा भ्याइ नभ्याई हुने कर्मचारीले आरामले काम गर्न पाएका छन् ।

पैसा खर्च गरेपछि सवारी हाँक्न नजाने पनि लाइसेन्स निश्चित हँुदा राजधानीलगायतका सहरबाट आवेदकको ओइरो लाग्थ्यो

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Shyam nagarkoti

hi i am shyam nagarkoti originally htd Nepal i am student this is my photo
look at me....................

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निजी विद्यालयप्रति सरकारी बेवास्ताबारे निर्णयहुने

निजी विद्यालयप्रति सरकारी बेवास्ताबारे निर्णयहुने
नेपाल समाचारपत्र (काठमाडौं) निजी तथा आवासीय विद्यालय अर्गनाइजेशन नेपाल-प्याव्सन) को आठौ राष्टिझयभेला ललितपुरमा शुरू भएको छ। प्याव्सनको भावी निती, आन्दोलन र समसामयीक अवस्थाको बारेमा केन्द्रीत रहेको सो भेलाले भावी कार्यक्रमको खाका सहित ललितपुर घोषणापत्र जारी गर्ने भएको छ। हिजोदेखि संचालन भएको सो भेला आज शनिबार सम्पन्न हुनेछ।एक प्रतिशत सेवा शुल्क कर, ४५ प्रतिशत आरक्षण कोटा, सरकारले बुद्धी गरेको तलबले पारेको असर, कम्पनी दर्ता गर्दा पारेको अप्ठ्यारो लगायत विषयमा केन्द्रीत भेलाले सरकारले निजी विद्यालयप्रति गरेको वेवास्ताको बारेमा ठोस निर्णय गर्ने भएको छ। कार्यक्रममा शिक्षामन्त्री गंगालाल तुलाधरले देशको शैक्षीक गुणस्तर वृद्धी गर्न निजी विद्यालयले खेलेको भुमिका बारे चर्चा गर्नुभएको थियो। उहाले सरकारी र निजी दुवै विद्यालय सक्षम बनाउन सरकार लागि परेको जानकारी गराउदै त्यसको निम्ति सबैको सहयोग अपरिहार्य रहेको बताउनुभयो। समग्र शैक्षीकक्षेत्र सुधारका लागि निकट भविष्यमा वृहत शैक्षीक सम्मेलन गर्ने तयारी भैरहेको बताउदै त्यसमा सबै क्षेत्रको विषयमा गम्भीर बहस हुने उल्लेख गर्नुभयो।उच्च शिक्षामा ४५ प्रतिशत आरक्षणकोटामा निजी उमाविहरूलाई समावेस गर्ने विषयमा सरकार गम्भीर भएको बताउदै उहाले यस विषयमा सरोकारवालासँग छलफल गरिने उल्लेख गर्नुभयो। कतिपय सामुदायीक विद्यालयले अग्रेजी शिक्षाको नाममा विद्यार्थी सँग शुल्क अशुल्न थालेकोमा आपत्ती जनाउदै त्यस्तो कार्य तत्काल बन्द गर्न चेेतावनी दिनुभयो। कार्यक्रमा पर्ुव शिक्षामन्त्री एवं नेपाली काग्रेसका नेता एनपी सावदले सरकारले निजी विद्यालयलाई अवहेलना गरेको आरोप लगाउनुभयो। उहाले भन्नुभयो- यदी हामी सरकारमा गयौभने निजी विद्यालयलाई समेत आर्थीक सहयोग गर्नेर्र्छौ। नेपाली काग्रेसका अर्कानेता मानबहादुर विश्वकर्माले सबै विद्यालयको विद्यार्थी एउटै भएकोले आरक्षण कोटामा सबैलाई समान व्यवहार गर्नुपर्ने जिकीर गर्नुभयो। दुवै नेताले एक प्रतिशत सेवाशुल्क कर खारेज गर्नुपर्ने उल्लेख गर्नुभयो। नेकपा एमाले शिक्षा विभाग प्रमुख महेन्द्रबहादुर पाण्डेले सरकारले एक प्रतिशत शुल्कको नाममा दोहोरो कर लिने गरेकोमा आपत्ती जनाउदै पहिलेदेखि तिर्ने गरेको २५ प्रतिशत भन्दा बढी बर तिर्न नहुने बताउनुभयो। उहाले अहिले सबैले नीति खोज्नुपर्ने उल्लेख गर्दै विधी खोजेर नहुने बताउनुभयो। राष्टिझय योजना आयोगका पर्ुव सदस्य एवं शिक्षाविद् प्राडा तर्ीथ खनियाले कसैको दवावमा निजी विद्यालय स्थापना नभएको उल्लेख गर्दै सरकारलेनै स्थापना गरेको विद्यालयलाई वेवास्ता गर्न नहुने बताउनुभयो। मन्त्रालयले नीति बनाउनुभन्दा मन्त्रीनै नीति भए यस्ले गर्दा नेपालको शैक्षीक क्षेत्र उन्नती हुन सकेन उहाले भन्नुभयो। सो कार्मक्रममा एन प्याव्सनकी अध्यक्ष गिता राणाले कसैले पनि एक प्रतिशत कर नतिर्न आग्रह गर्दै चालु आवको बजेटमा सो कर खारेज भैसकेको उल्लेख गर्नुभयो।उहाले प्याव्सन र एन प्याब्सन मिलेर आन्दोलन गर्नुपर्ने बताउदै निर्णायक आन्दोलनले मात्र सही निष्कर्षनिस्कने बताउनुभयो। प्याब्सनका अध्यक्ष राजेश खड्काले दर्ुइदिने भेलाले नया आन्दोलनको घोषणा गर्ने बताउनुभयो। उहाले एक प्रतिशत कर, आरक्षण लगायत विषयमा गरीने आन्दोलनले सरकारलाई गलाउने समेत दावी गर्नुभयो। सरकारले बृहत शिक्षा ऐन ल्याएर निजी क्षेत्रलाई समेट्नर्ुर्पे धारणा राख्दै अठार वर्षेखि अघि बढाएको मागलाई समेत सरकारले वेवास्ता गरेको बताउनुभयो। कार्यक्रममा प्याब्सनका वरिष्ठ उपाध्यक्ष ज्ञानदेव हट्वालले सरकारले निजी विद्यालयलाई कोठाभित्र थुनेर राखेको विरालोको जस्तो हालत बनाएको चर्चा गर्दै सधै यस्तो स्थिति जारी राखे सरकारको विरुद्धमा उत्रने चेतावनी दिनुभयो। शिक्षा विभागका महानिर्देशक महाश्रम शर्मा,अभिभावक संघ नेपालका अध्यक्ष शुप्रभात भण्डारी, राष्टिझय अभिभावक संघका अध्यक्ष धर्मराज देवकोटा, नेपाल राष्टिझय शिक्षक संगठनका महासचिव वावुराम थापा लगायतले शुभकामना मन्तव्य व्यक्त गर्नुभएको थियो।

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मोबाइल सेटबाट रोग संक्रमण

माधव बराल (कास्की) मोबाइलको ध्वनि तरंगले मानव स्वास्थ्यमा असर गर्छ भन्ने जानकारी भए पनि मोबाइल सेटबाट पनि रोग संक्रमणको खतरा भएको सबैलाई थाहा नहुन सक्छ।हामीले प्रयोग गर्ने मोबाइल सेट, रोगको कीटाणु सार्ने माध्यम बनेको एक अनुसन्धानले देखाएको छ। अनुसन्धानको रिपोर्टअनुसार स्वास्थ्य क्षेत्रमा कार्यरत स्वास्थ्यकर्मीले मोबाइल सेटलाई प्रयोग गर्दा र्सतर्कता अपनाउनुपर्ने देखिएको छ। अन्य व्यक्तिले पनि अस्पताललगायत बिरामी भएको ठाउँमा सकेसम्म मोबाइल नलैजान चिकित्सकले सुझाव दिएका छन्। पश्चिमाञ्चल क्षेत्रमा विगत एक वर्षा स्वास्थ्य क्षेत्रमा भएका अनुसन्धानका बारेमा जानकारी गराउन पोखरामा आयोजित कार्यक्रममा दिएको जानकारीअनुसार पोखराको मनिपाल शिक्षण अस्पतालमा गरिएको अनुसन्धानले मोबाइल सेटबाट सरुवा रोगको संक्रमण हुने खतरा देखिएको हो। मनिपालका डाक्टर अभिषेक गौरले गरेको अनुन्धानले मोबाइल सेटले सरुवा रोगको कीटाणु सारेर फोक्सो, छाला, खुला घाउलगायतमा असरको खतरा रहेको देखाएको छ। अनुसन्धानमा संलग्न चिकित्सकका अनुसार मोबाइल सेटलाई परीक्षण गर्दा सरुवा रोगका कीटाणु भेटिएका थिए। नेपाल स्वास्थ्य अनुसन्धान परिषद्को आयोजना तथा गण्डकी मेडिकल टिचिङ कलेज एन्ड रिर्सच सेन्टरको सहकार्य भएको कार्यक्रममा डाक्टर निर्मल लामिछानेले मोबाइलको सेटबाट रोगको संक्रमणको खतरा रहेकाले स्वास्थ्य क्षेत्रका संवेदनशील ठाउँ आईसीयूलगायतमा मोबाइल लान नहुने बताए। उनका अनुसार दर्ीघ बिरामीमा रोगसँग लड्ने प्रतिरोधात्मक क्षमता कम हुने हुनाले त्यस्ता बिरामी भएको ठाउँमा पनि मोबाइल प्रयोग नगर्न अनुसन्धानले सुझाएको छ। चिकित्सकले अस्पतालमा बिरामी भेट्न जाँदा पनि सकेसम्म मोबाइल नलान सबैलाई आग्रहसमेत गरेका छन्। अनुसन्धानमा भएका प्रगतिका बारेमा जानकारी दिन आयोजित कार्यक्रममा विभिन्न १४ वटा विषयमा अनुसन्धानपत्र प्रस्तुत गरिएको परिषद्का प्रमुख डा. चोपलाल भुसालले जानकारी दिए।

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introduction-to computer

1. introduction-to computer

What is computer?

Computer is a fast and accuracy electronic device that accepts data though input device then store and process them, and resulted data are display from output device.s

A computer is a machine that can be programmed to manipulate symbols. Its principal characteristics are:

• It responds to a specific set of instructions in a well-defined manner.
• It can execute a prerecorded list of instructions (a program).
• It can quickly store and retrieve large amounts of data.

Therefore computers can perform complex and repetitive procedures quickly, precisely and reliably. Modern computers are electronic and digital. The actual machinery (wires, transistors, and circuits) is called hardware; the instructions and data are called software. All general-purpose computers require the following hardware components:

• Central processing unit (CPU): The heart of the computer, this is the component that actually executes instructions organized in programs ("software") which tell the computer what to do.
• Memory (fast, expensive, short-term memory): Enables a computer to store, at least temporarily, data, programs, and intermediate results.
• Mass storage device (slower, cheaper, long-term memory): Allows a computer to permanently retain large amounts of data and programs between jobs. Common mass storage devices include disk drives and tape drives.
• Input device: Usually a keyboard and mouse, the input device is the conduit through which data and instructions enter a computer.
• Output device: A display screen, printer, or other device that lets you see what the computer has accomplished.

In addition to these components, many others make it possible for the basic components to work together efficiently. For example, every computer requires a bus that transmits data from one part of the computer to another.

2. Supercomputer and Mainframe

Supercomputer is a broad term for one of the fastest computers currently available. Supercomputers are very expensive and are employed for specialized applications that require immense amounts of mathematical calculations (number crunching). For example, weather forecasting requires a supercomputer. Other uses of supercomputers scientific simulations, (animated) graphics, fluid dynamic calculations, nuclear energy research, electronic design, and analysis of geological data (e.g. in petrochemical prospecting). Perhaps the best known supercomputer manufacturer is Cray Research.

Mainframe was a term originally referring to the cabinet containing the central processor unit or "main frame" of a room-filling Stone Age batch machine. After the emergence of smaller "minicomputer" designs in the early 1970s, the traditional big iron machines were described as "mainframe computers" and eventually just as mainframes. Nowadays a Mainframe is a very large and expensive computer capable of supporting hundreds, or even thousands, of users simultaneously. The chief difference between a supercomputer and a mainframe is that a supercomputer channels all its power into executing a few programs as fast as possible, whereas a mainframe uses its power to execute many programs concurrently. In some ways, mainframes are more powerful than supercomputers because they support more simultaneous programs. But supercomputers can execute a single program faster than a mainframe. The distinction between small mainframes and minicomputers is vague, depending really on how the manufacturer wants to market its machines.

A) Minicomputer

It is a midsize computer. In the past decade, the distinction between large minicomputers and small mainframes has blurred, however, as has the distinction between small minicomputers and workstations. But in general, a minicomputer is a multiprocessing system capable of supporting from up to 200 users simultaneously.

B) Mainframe (Personal computer)

It can be defined as a small, relatively inexpensive computer designed for an individual user. In price, personal computers range anywhere from a few hundred pounds to over five thousand pounds. All are based on the microprocessor technology that enables manufacturers to put an entire CPU on one chip. Businesses use personal computers for word processing, accounting, desktop publishing, and for running spreadsheet and database management applications. At home, the most popular use for personal computers is for playing games and recently for surfing the Internet.

Computer is an electronic device. As mentioned in the introduction it can do arithmetic calculation faster. But as you will see later it does much more then that. It can be compared to a magic box which serves different purpose to different people.

3. Computer Viruses

A virus is a program designed by a computer programmer (malicious hacker) to do a certain unwanted function. The virus program can be simply annoying like displaying a happy face on the user's screen at a certain time and date. It can also be very destructive and damage your computer's programs and files causing the computer to stop working.

The reason why hackers create viruses are open for speculation. The most quoted reason is simply to see if it can be done. Other reasons are Ludite based "smash the machine" motivations, antiestablishment/anti-corporate actions, criminal intent, and various others that range into the "conspiracy theory" realm.

4. Hardware

The hardware are the parts of the computer itself including the Central Processing Unit (CPU) and related microchips and micro-circuitry, keyboards, monitors, case and drives (hard, CD, DVD, floppy, optical, tape, etc...). Other extra parts called peripheral components or devices include mouse, printers, modems, scanners, digital cameras and cards (sound, colour, video) etc... Together they are often referred to as a personal computer.

Central Processing Unit - Though the term relates to a specific chip or the processor a CPU's performance is determined by the rest of the computer's circuitry and chips.

Currently the Pentium chip or processor, made by Intel, is the most common CPU though there are many other companies that produce processors for personal computers. Examples are the CPU made by Motorola and AMD.

5. software

The software is the information that the computer uses to get the job done. Software needs to be accessed before it can be used. There are many terms used for process of accessing software including running, executing, starting up, opening, and others.

Computer programs allow users to complete tasks. A program can also be referred to as an application and the two words are used interchangeably.

Examples of software programs or applications would be the Operating System (DOS, Windows, UNIX, MacOS and various others), Wordprocessor (typing letters), Spreadsheet (financial info), Database (inventory control and address book), Graphics program, Internet Browser, Email and many others.

6. Characteristics of computer

1. Speed

2. Accuracy

3. Diligence

4. Versatility

5. Storage

6. Automatic

7. Power of remembering

8. Processing

9. Non- intelligent

7. Application of computer

1. Banking and financial company

2. Education

3. Industries

4. Research

5. Hospital

6. Data processing

7. Science and Engineering

8. Offices

9. Advertisement

10. Communication

11. Library

12. Simulation

13. Weather forecasting

14. Hotel Management

15. Airline corporation

8. Generation computer

· Frist generation computer

1) They are very slow.

2) They are very large in size

3) They used vacuum tubes as memory device

4) They consumed a lot of electrical power

5) The operating speed was in terms of milliseconds

6) Storage capacity was too small only 1 to 4 kb

7) They used machine level programing language

8) They were used only for scientific or research purpose

· Second Generation computer

1) They are smaller then first Generation of computer

2) They are faster then first Generation of computer

3) They used transistor as memory device since 1000 vacuum tubes ware replaced by only transistor

4) They consumed less electrical power then first generation

5) Magnetic core memory was used as internal storage

6) Magnetic tapes ware used as secondary storage media

7) They could understand high level language such as COBOL

8) Input and output devices are much faster

· Third Generation of computer

1) They were small, efficient and reliable

2) Integrated circuits were the main feature of third generation of computer

3) The operating speed was in terms of primary memory

4) Magnetic disks were used as secondary memory

5) They could understand large number of high level language

· Fourth generation computer

1) The size of fourth generation computer were reduced to desk top lap top computer

2) The operating speed increased beyond picoseconds and MIPS ( million of instruction per second

3) Use of large scale integration is the main characteristic of this generation

4) Magnetic and optical storage device with capacity more than 100gb were used as secondary memory

5) Multiprocessing and multiprogramming OS are used

· Fifth generation computer

1) the speed is extremely in fifth generation computer

2) it can perform large number of processing

3) The concept of artificial intelligence has introduced to allow the computer to take its own decision. It is still in a development stage.

4) Bio chips and gallium arsenide (GaAS) are used as memory device

5) Large user of natural language processing and user friendly

9) Computer data storage

1 GB of SDRAM 40 GB PATA 160 GB SDLT

Computer data storage, often called storage or memory, refers to computer components and recording media that retain digital data used for computing for some interval of time. Computer data storage provides one of the core functions of the modern computer, that of information retention. It is one of the fundamental components of all modern computers, and coupled with a central processing unit (CPU, a processor), implements the basic computer model used since the 1940s.

In contemporary usage, memory usually refers to a form of semiconductor storage known as random-access memory, typically DRAM (Dynamic-RAM) but memory can refer to other forms of fast but temporary storage. Similarly, storage today more commonly refers to storage devices and their media not directly accessible by the CPU (secondary or tertiary storage) — typically hard disk drives, optical disc drives, and other devices slower than RAM but more permanent. Historically, memory has been called main memory, real storage or internal memory while storage devices have been referred to as secondary storage, external memory or auxiliary/peripheral storage.

The contemporary distinctions are helpful, because they are also fundamental to the architecture of computers in general. The distinctions also reflect an important and significant technical difference between memory and mass storage devices, which has been blurred by the historical usage of the term storage. Nevertheless, this article uses the traditional nomenclature.

Many different forms of storage, based on various natural phenomena, have been invented. So far, no practical universal storage medium exists, and all forms of storage have some drawbacks. Therefore a computer system usually contains several kinds of storage, each with an individual purpose.

A digital computer represents data using the binary numeral system. Text, numbers, pictures, audio, and nearly any other form of information can be converted into a string of bits, or binary digits, each of which has a value of 1 or 0. The most common unit of storage is the byte, equal to 8 bits. A piece of information can be handled by any computer whose storage space is large enough to accommodate the binary representation of the piece of information, or simply data. For example, using eight million bits, or about one megabyte, a typical computer could store a short novel.

Traditionally the most important part of every computer is the central processing unit (CPU, or simply a processor), because it actually operates on data, performs any calculations, and controls all the other components.

Without a significant amount of memory, a computer would merely be able to perform fixed operations and immediately output the result. It would have to be reconfigured to change its behavior. This is acceptable for devices such as desk calculators or simple digital signal processors. Von Neumann machines differ in that they have a memory in which they store their operating instructions and data. Such computers are more versatile in that they do not need to have their hardware reconfigured for each new program, but can simply be reprogrammed with new in-memory instructions; they also tend to be simpler to design, in that a relatively simple processor may keep state between successive computations to build up complex procedural results. Most modern computers are von Neumann machines.

In practice, almost all computers use a variety of memory types, organized in a storage hierarchy around the CPU, as a trade-off between performance and cost. Generally, the lower a storage is in the hierarchy, the lesser its bandwidth and the greater its access latency is from the CPU. This traditional division of storage to primary, secondary, tertiary and off-line storage is alsoguidedby

a. Hierarchy of storage

b) Primary storage

Direct links to this section: Primary storage, Main memory, Internal Memory.

Primary storage (or main memory or internal memory), often referred to simply as memory, is the only one directly accessible to the CPU. The CPU continuously reads instructions stored there and executes them as required. Any data actively operated on is also stored there in uniform manner.

Historically, early computers used delay lines, Williams tubes, or rotating magnetic drums as primary storage. By 1954, those unreliable methods were mostly replaced by magnetic core memory. Core memory remained dominant until the 1970s, when advances in integrated circuit technology allowed semiconductor memory to become economically competitive.

This led to modern random-access memory (RAM). It is small-sized, light, but quite expensive at the same time. (The particular types of RAM used for primary storage are also volatile, i.e. they lose the information when not powered).

· ROM

ROM is an acronym for Read-Only Memory. It refers to computer memory chips containing permanent or semi-permanent pre-recorded programs. Unlike RAM, ROM is non-volatile. Even after you turn off your computer, the contents of the ROM remains available.

Almost every computer comes with a small amount of ROM containing the boot firmware. This holds just enough information so that the computer can check its hardware and load its operating system into RAM. On a PC, the boot firmware is called the BIOS.

Originally, ROM was literally "read-only". To update the programs in ROM, people had to remove and physically replace their ROM chips. Contemporary versions of ROM allow some limited rewriting (referred to as a flash update, as well as the dynamic side of the ROM, which can be written to by the OS), so you can usually upgrade firmware such as the BIOS by using installation software. Rewritable ROM chips include PROMs (programmable read-only memory), EPROMs (erasable read-only memory), EEPROMs (electrically erasable programmable read-only memory), and a common variation of EEPROMs called "flash memory".

· RAM

RAM stands for Random Access Memory. RAM is the place where your computer temporarily stores its operating system, application programs, and current data, so that the computer's processor can reach them quickly and easily. When people refer to your computer's memory, they mostly mean its RAM, and it is volatile. Not volatile in the common term, as it won't catch file or explode. Volatile in this instance means that when you turn off your computer, anything in RAM disappears or is erased.

Desktop computers usually come with 16 or more megabytes of RAM, usually increasing in multiples of 8 megabytes. If you use graphic applications, you probably have 32, 64 or more megabytes of memory. Most personal computers are designed so that you can add more RAM modules up to the limit imposed by the motherboard.

If you add more RAM to your computer, you reduce the number of times your processor must read data from your hard disk (Virtual Memory). This usually allows your computer to work considerably faster.

c) Secondary storage

A hard disk drive with protective cover removed.

Secondary storage (also known as external memory or auxiliary storage), differs from primary storage in that it is not directly accessible by the CPU. The computer usually uses its input/output channels to access secondary storage and transfers the desired data using intermediate area in primary storage. Secondary storage does not lose the data when the device is powered down—it is non-volatile. Per unit, it is typically also two orders of magnitude less expensive than primary storage. Consequently, modern computer systems typically have two orders of magnitude more secondary storage than primary storage and data is kept for a longer time there.

In modern computers, hard disk drives are usually used as secondary storage. The time taken to access a given byte of information stored on a hard disk is typically a few thousandths of a second, or milliseconds. By contrast, the time taken to access a given byte of information stored in random access memory is measured in billionths of a second, or nanoseconds. This illustrates the significant access-time difference which distinguishes solid-state memory from rotating magnetic storage devices: hard disks are typically about a million times slower than memory. Rotating optical storage devices, such as CD and DVD drives, have even longer access times. With disk drives, once the disk read/write head reaches the proper placement and the data of interest rotates under it, subsequent data on the track are very fast to access. As a result, in order to hide the initial seek time and rotational latency, data is transferred to and from disks in large contiguous blocks.

When data reside on disk, block access to hide latency offers a ray of hope in designing efficient external memory algorithms. Sequential or block access on disks is orders of magnitude faster than random access, and many sophisticated paradigms have been developed to design efficient algorithms based upon sequential and block access . Another way to reduce the I/O bottleneck is to use multiple disks in parallel in order to increase the bandwidth between primary and secondary memory.

Some other examples of secondary storage technologies are: flash memory (e.g. USB flash drives or keys), floppy disks, magnetic tape, paper tape, punched cards, standalone RAM disks, and Iomega Zip drives.

The secondary storage is often formatted according to a file system format, which provides the abstraction necessary to organize data into files and directories, providing also additional information (called metadata) describing the owner of a certain file, the access time, the access permissions, and other information.

Most computer operating systems use the concept of virtual memory, allowing utilization of more primary storage capacity than is physically available in the system. As the primary memory fills up, the system moves the least-used chunks (pages) to secondary storage devices (to a swap file or page file), retrieving them later when they are needed. As more of these retrievals from slower secondary storage are necessary, the more the overall system performance is degraded.

Volatility

Non-volatile memory

Will retain the stored information even if it is not constantly supplied with electric power. It is suitable for long-term storage of information.

Volatile memory

Requires constant power to maintain the stored information. The fastest memory technologies of today are volatile ones (not a universal rule). Since primary storage is required to be very fast, it predominantly uses volatile memory.

Capacity

Raw capacity

The total amount of stored information that a storage device or medium can hold. It is expressed as a quantity of bits or bytes (e.g. 10.4 megabytes).

Memory storage density

The compactness of stored information. It is the storage capacity of a medium divided with a unit of length, area or volume (e.g. 1.2 megabytes per square inch).

Performance

Latency

The time it takes to access a particular location in storage. The relevant unit of measurement is typically nanosecond for primary storage, millisecond for secondary storage, and second for tertiary storage. It may make sense to separate read latency and write latency, and in case of sequential access storage, minimum, maximum and average latency.

Throughput

The rate at which information can be read from or written to the storage. In computer data storage, throughput is usually expressed in terms of megabytes per second or MB/s, though bit rate may also be used. As with latency, read rate and write rate may need to be differentiated. Also accessing media sequentially, as opposed to randomly, typically yields maximum throughput.

Energy use

• Storage devices that reduce fan usage, automatically shut-down during inactivity, and low power hard drives can reduce energy consumption 90 percent. ^[6]
• 2.5 inch hard disk drives often consume less power than larger ones.^[7][8] Low capacity solid-state drives have no moving parts and consume less power than hard disks.^[9][10][11] Also, memory may use more power than hard disks.^[11]

10. Fundamental storage technologies

A) Semiconductor

Semiconductor memory uses semiconductor-based integrated circuits to store information. A semiconductor memory chip may contain millions of tiny transistors or capacitors. Both volatile and non-volatile forms of semiconductor memory exist. In modern computers, primary storage almost exclusively consists of dynamic volatile semiconductor memory or dynamic random access memory. Since the turn of the century, a type of non-volatile semiconductor memory known as flash memory has steadily gained share as off-line storage for home computers. Non-volatile semiconductor memory is also used for secondary storage in various advanced electronic devices and specialized computers.

b) Magnetic

Magnetic storage media

Magnetic storage uses different patterns of magnetization on a magnetically coated surface to store information. Magnetic storage is non-volatile. The information is accessed using one or more read/write heads which may contain one or more recording transducers. A read/write head only covers a part of the surface so that the head or medium or both must be moved relative to another in order to access data. In modern computers, magnetic storage will take these forms:

• Magnetic disk
• Floppy disk, used for off-line storage
• Hard disk drive, used for secondary storage
• Magnetic tape data storage, used for tertiary and off-line storage

In early computers, magnetic storage was also used for primary storage in a form of magnetic drum, or core memory, core rope memory, thin-film memory, twistor memory or bubble memory. Also unlike today, magnetic tape was often used for secondary storage. C) Optical Optical storage media

Optical storage, the typical optical disc, stores information in deformities on the surface of a circular disc and reads this information by illuminating the surface with a laser diode and observing the reflection. Optical disc storage is non-volatile. The deformities may be permanent (read only media ), formed once (write once media) or reversible (recordable or read/write media). The following forms are currently in common use:

• CD, CD-ROM, DVD, BD-ROM: Read only storage, used for mass distribution of digital information (music, video, computer programs)
• CD-R, DVD-R, DVD+R, BD-R: Write once storage, used for tertiary and off-line storage
• CD-RW, DVD-RW, DVD+RW, DVD-RAM, BD-RE: Slow write, fast read storage, used for tertiary and off-line storage

· Ultra Density Optical or UDO is similar in capacity to BD-R or BD-RE and is slow write, fast read storage used for tertiary and off-line storage.

11. Internet – Email

Email is the electronic equivalent of sending a letter through the mail. There are many different mail reading programs or clients that control email but the basic functions are all the same. An email address directs a message to the recipient.

Email addresses are made up of...

· the account name (often the users first initial and then the last name (sometimes only 8 characters)

· then the @ symbol

· then the name of the user's ISP

· the last 3 characters describe the type of service for the top level domain (TLD) name. For example .com stand for commercial site, .mil - U.S. military, .gov - U.S. government, .net - network, etc...

· when an address has 2 characters it is a geographical top level domain (gTLD). For example .ca - is a site registered in Canada, .au - is a site registered in Australia, .tv - is a site registered in Tuvla

· new TLDs are occasionally added including; .biz, .info, .name, .asia, .mobi

As well as sending and receiving mail the recipient can;

· save the address for future reference in an address book

· reply to the original message

· forward the message to a third party

· edit a message

· check the spelling and a wide range of other options.

12. Computer Security

· There is a lot of discussion these days about computer security as more people use email and more services such as banking, mail orders and subscriptions become available through the Internet. But how secure is the Internet and what is computer security?

· Updating Software

· It is very important to update your software periodically. When a program is released, particular internet browsers, it may contain flaws usually referred to as bugs. These bugs may not appear to be a problem but criminals will attempt to use these flaws for their own use. Keeping your software up to date will help keep your computer secure.

· Computers & Security

· Before the Internet, computer security was limited to 'closed systems' or network computers such as offices or banks where only people physically in the office could use the computer system. It was quite easy for the network supervisor to set up user names and passwords and since that time people have become used to logging on before they can use these types of computers or resources.

· With the advent of the Internet, computers users can now work in an 'open system' and security has become much more complicated. Even though you can now connect your home or office computer to the Internet and perform remote transactions without leaving the building you still want to be sure that the transaction is secure. The transaction takes place through the Internet by bouncing the information through various computers before it reaches, for example, the bank's computer. You want to be sure that no one observes the transaction along the way and collects or modifies your transaction information.

13. Using Software

· As stated earlier software is anything created and/or stored on a computer or computer storage device (like a disk). The work that is produced using an application or program is also software and is usually referred to as a file or a document.

· Files & Documents

· Once you have typed or created a new document or file on your computer, you will have to decide what to do with it. You could print it right away using a Print command and then Exit or Quit your program without saving it, but most of the time you will want to Save your document for future use.

· Folders & Directories

· On the disk are directories or collection of folders. These directories or folders could be compared to a filing cabinet. All files are stored in a directory. Most hard disks have many directories or folders and files can be stored in any of them.

· Saving Files or Documents

· In order to save a new document or file you must first choose the Save command. Most modern software place this command in a menu which you access with the mouse button or Alt key. Each file must be given a filename so it can be found easily the next time it is needed.

· Printing

· The promise of a paperless office has not happened though conservation is catching on and it is possible to reduce paper consumption by using your computer more effectively. Having said that many computers are attached to printers and there are many reasons to print out documents that you create on your computer. Most software programs and applications allow the user to print the information that is created in the program.

· Exit or Quit

· It is important to Exit or Quit a program, application and the operating system before shutting off the computer. It is a good idea to Quit a program when you are finished with it as it takes up memory. Exiting a program should free up the memory that the program was using. Having a number of programs running simply uses up resources that may be needed in another project.

· Menus

·

· Menus are the most common way of interacting or controlling your software. Though each program has it's own menu, modern software developers have begun establishing some standardization in how they create their menus. Many programs have a menu called File which controls things like Opening, Saving and Printing your file and Exiting the program. Many also have an Edit menu which contains the main editing commands like Cut, Copy and Paste.

· Installing New Software

· Most software sold today has an automated install sequence that is activated with the press of a button. The installation process will create a directory, if necessary, to store the files related to the new program, uncompress and copy the files to the directory and often adds itself the desktop (Start) menu. Many installation processes will also copy files to other parts of the computer and register itself with the operating system by updating the registry. Some programs will associate themselves to a certain filename extension.

· Backing up Files

· Computer errors and software failures happen ocasionally so it is important to backup your files and documents.

· Compression and Decompression

· Most software you buy or get off the Internet is Compressed. Computers store information in bytes which are made up of on or off signals. The software applications that uses these files need to have all the on and off signals (bytes) in place but when the file is stored they can be modified to take up less space on the storage disk or tape.

…….GOOD……. LUCK…….

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